Infective endocarditis: clinical features, diagnosis, and modern treatment approaches

Abstract

Infective endocarditis (IE) is a serious infectious disease characterized by microbial infection of the endocardial surface of the heart, most commonly involving the heart valves. The condition is associated with significant morbidity and mortality despite advances in diagnostic and therapeutic methods. The disease develops when microorganisms enter the bloodstream and colonize damaged cardiac tissue, leading to the formation of vegetations. Clinical manifestations range from fever and heart murmurs to severe complications such as heart failure, stroke, and systemic embolization. Diagnosis relies on blood cultures, echocardiography, and the Modified Duke Criteria. Early identification and prompt initiation of targeted antimicrobial therapy are essential for successful treatment. In selected cases, surgical intervention may be required to prevent life-threatening complications. Recent advances in diagnostic imaging, molecular microbiology, and therapeutic strategies have improved patient outcomes. Nevertheless, infective endocarditis remains a major challenge in modern cardiology and infectious disease practice.